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Published: 06 November 2013

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Dr Kerry Hempenstall, Senior Industry Fellow, School of Education, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.

First published Nov 5 2012, updated 19/8/2016, 12/6/2018

All my blogs can be viewed on-line or downloaded as a Word file or PDF at https://www.dropbox.com/sh/olxpifutwcgvg8j/AABU8YNr4ZxiXPXzvHrrirR8a?dl=0

New Addition – April 2025

This is a new research paper added to the older original set that is still available at the end of this section.

The reason for the new paper is to consider whether Literacy and Mental Health issues have changed over time. The new section emphasises papers aged between 2020 to 2025. In contrast, the older set contains material going back a far as 1963 and others at various ages.

So, the interesting question is - has the Intervention material changed over time? If so, how?

Now for the relevant, newer, research results:

“The relationship between mental health and literacy is not easy to disentangle, as studies are usually correlational in design. Certainly, there does appear to be a link - but does illiteracy cause mental health problems, or might mental health problems impede literacy development? Or perhaps a third variable affects both domains. One obvious candidate for a causal link involves extended failure caused or exacerbated by inadequate instruction, particularly in that first big educational hurdle – literacy development.” (Hempenstall, LMH)

Response to Intervention (2019)

“Increasingly, a different approach known as Response to Intervention (RTI) is supplanting the discrepancy approach, although there are also criticisms of this new emphasis (Baskette, Ulmer, & Bender, 2006). For example, some have argued that a hybrid of RTI and discrepancy approaches offer the optimal solution for assessment and intervention in LD (Hale et al., 2010).

While this debate over special education continues, the RTI model has found another, much broader, niche in education – as a framework for providing early identification of potential problems, and better instruction to students in general education, thereby reducing the demand for expensive special education services.

Response to Intervention integrates assessment and intervention within a multi-level prevention system to maximize student achievement and to reduce behavioural problems. With RTI, schools use data to identify students at risk for poor learning outcomes, monitor student progress, provide evidence-based interventions and adjust the intensity and nature of those interventions depending on a student’s responsiveness, and identify students with learning disabilities or other disabilities” (National Center on Response to Intervention, 2010).

RTI derives from the application of the same scientific method used to study natural phenomena. The approach proceeds from a description of the problem, followed by the development of a hypothesis as to cause. A procedure is selected based upon the hypothesis, and the intervention is commenced, while data is then regularly collected, leading to a conclusion about the intervention’s effectiveness. This is a cyclical process that continues until the objective is attained for a given student.

There are a number of assumptions underlying the RTI framework. All students can learn, and the learning is strongly influenced by the quality of instruction. In fact, it is argued that there is a predictable relationship between instructional quality and learning outcomes. It is expected that both general classroom programs and additional specific interventions will be evidence-based to provide greater instructional quality. Assuming the curriculum content is evidence-based, another manipulable causal variable will be intensity of the intervention. This includes varying academic engaged time, lesson frequency, program duration, group size, engagement, lesson pacing, mastery criteria, number of response opportunities, correction procedures, goal specificity, and instructor skill.

RTI advocates argue that the model is useful for both beginning and remedial instruction. The sequence for a school or class involves all beginning students being screened for the pre-skills that evidence highlights are necessary for success in the domain in question. Appropriate universal screening tools are available at the National Center for RTI website (rti4success.org), and in numerous other sites. The derived data allow judgements of the students' current performance, by comparing them to a criterion-referenced benchmark. If scores are at or beyond the benchmark, students are judged to be satisfactorily managed within the general classroom program. If a student’s scores fall below the benchmark then general classroom instruction is considered insufficient for the child’s needs, and requires supplementation.

Most of the studies involving RTI have focused upon reading, but the breadth of application is increasing. All students are provided with research-validated instruction from the beginning, and are regularly re-assessed, at least three times per year. Additionally, student behaviour is assessed because of the close links (and possible reciprocal causation) between early academic success and student behaviour (Algozzine, McCart, & Goodman, 2011). This widening of RTI emphasis has led to the introduction of another descriptor – Multi-tier System of Supports (MTSS).

“More recently, multitier system of supports (MTSS) has become influential in educational policy. It provides an overarching framework that usually includes the three levels of RTI for struggling students. Extending beyond academics, its reach includes social and emotional supports, such as behavior intervention plans, and is intended to be applicable to all students.”

Greenwood, C. R., Carta, J. J., Schnitz, A. G., Irvin, D. W., Jia, F., & Atwater, J. (2019). Filling an information gap in preschool MTSS and RTI decision making. Exceptional Children, 85(3), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918812473

“Anxiety and depression symptoms may leave children at risk for lower academic scores, though this unique linkage to academic achievement in underserved youth is less well established. This study aimed to examine how anxiety and depression are uniquely related to spelling and math achievement beyond attention and hyperactivity deficits in children in underserved schools. Children aged 8 to 11 (n = 1085, 47.3% female) from historically underserved groups (Hispanic 75.3%, American Indian 6.4%, Black 4.9%, and White 1.5%) from 13 schools across two public school districts in California participated in the assessment of emotional and behavioral health symptoms that included a spelling and math assessment. While there was no relationship between anxiety or hyperactivity on spelling and math scores, depression and attention problems were significantly negatively related to spelling and math scores.

However, when entered simultaneously, evidence of suppressor effects emerged. Anxiety and hyperactivity both became positively predictive of math. Similarly, anxiety became positively predictive of spelling. Subsample analyses showed that these suppressor effects were only in females. The associations among anxiety, depression, attention, and hyperactivity with spelling and math achievement are complex, and when controlling for depression and attention, anxiety levels and hyperactivity may be motivating some level of achievement in these areas.”

McCurdy BH, Scozzafava MD, Bradley T, Matlow R, Weems CF, Carrion VG. (2022). Impact of anxiety and depression on academic achievement among underserved school children: evidence of suppressor effects. Curr Psychol. 2022 Sep 30:1-9. doi: 10.1007/s12144-022-03801-9. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 36213567; PMCID: PMC9524334.

“Mental health problems can affect many areas of students’ lives, reducing their quality of life, academic achievement, physical health, and satisfaction with the college experience, and negatively impacting relationships with friends and family members. These issues can also have long-term consequences for students, affecting their future employment, earning potential, and overall health.¹

Consequences for the Student

Mental health problems can affect a student’s energy level, concentration, dependability, mental ability, and optimism, hindering performance.² Research suggests that depression is associated with lower grade point averages, and that co-occurring depression and anxiety can increase this association.² Depression has also been linked to dropping out of school.²

Many college students report that mental health difficulties interfere with their studies. On the American College Health Association 2015 survey, college students identified the following mental health issues as negatively impacting their academic performance within the last 12 months:³

• Stress (30% of students)
• Anxiety (22%)
• Sleep difficulties (20%)
• Depression (14%)

Consequences for Others

• Peers, family members, faculty, and staff may be personally affected out of concern for these students.
• Depression and anxiety can have harmful effects on relationships and work productivity.
• Suicide and suicidal thoughts can affect the larger campus community.
• Roommates, peers, faculty, and staff also experience profound grief over student suicides and suicidal behavior.

Consequences for Campuses

• Campuses feel the burden when students with mental health difficulties do poorly on course work and drop out of school.
• Colleges and universities must be prepared to address the psychological impact of suicides on other students, as well as on teachers and staff.⁴
• Poor student retention can mean losses in tuition, fees, and alumni donations.

Consequences for Communities and the Larger Society

• The community is negatively affected when students are unable to finish their degrees and contribute valuable skills in a competitive job market.
• One study found that five percent of students do not finish their education due to psychiatric disorders and estimated that 4.29 million people would have graduated from college had they not been experiencing such disorders.^”

SPRC (2020) Consequences of Student Mental Health Issues at Suicide Prevention Resource Center.

https://sprc.org/settings/colleges-and-universities/consequences-of-student-mental-health-issues/

“Mental health is a key component of overall health and wellbeing (WHO 2021). A mental illness can be defined as ‘a clinically diagnosable disorder that significantly interferes with a person’s cognitive, emotional or social abilities’ (COAG Health Council 2017). However, a person does not need to meet the criteria for a mental illness to be negatively affected by their mental health (COAG Health Council 2017; Slade et al. 2009).

The terms ‘mental illness’, ‘mental disorder’, ‘mental health condition’ ‘psychiatric illness’ and other terms are used across a range of different studies and data sources to describe a range of mental health and behavioural disorders, which can vary in both severity and duration. For this report the term mental illness is used.

There are multiple surveys which collect information on the extent of mental illness in the Australian population. This page collates evidence on the prevalence and impact of mental illness. For more information about specific surveys, refer to data sources. How many Australians have experienced mental illness?

The following estimates come from the 2020–2022 National Study of Mental Health and Wellbeing (NSMHW). It included an in-person interview using the World Health Organization’s Composite International Diagnostic Interview, version 3.0. This instrument indicates diagnoses, rather than relying on participant’s self-reporting of mental illness (ABS 2023b).

Based on the NSMHWB, of Australians aged 16–85, an estimated:

• 8.5 million had experienced a mental illness at some time in their life (43% of the population).
• 4.3 million had experienced a mental illness in the previous 12 months (22% of the population; Figure 1).

The most common mental illnesses in Australia, in the 12 months prior to the study, were:

• Anxiety disorder  (3.4 million people, or 17% of the population)
• Affective disorders (1.5 million, or 8%)
• Substance Use disorders (650,000, or 3%) (ABS 2023a).”

• The prevalence of mental illness varies by age and sex and has increased more rapidly than other serious illnesses – this increase has been more pronounced for young women (aged 15–34). In 2021, double the proportion of females aged 20–29 reported that they had been told by a doctor or nurse that they have a mental illness compared to males the same age (16% and 8%, respectively) (ABS 2022a)
• According to the HILDA survey, in 2021, the estimated prevalence of depression or anxiety was highest among younger women and men (aged 15–34) at 22%, compared to 15% for people aged 55 and over. Since 2017, mental illness prevalence rates exceed asthma, which had been the most common serious illness for this age group.”

“An estimated 8,514, 700 Australian aged 16-85 (43%) have experienced a mental illness in their lives.”

AIHW Australian  Government. (2024). Prevalence and impact of mental illness. https://www.aihw.gov.au/mental-health/overview/prevalence-and-impact-of-mental-illness?ref=thelovepost.global

“Mental health is an essential component of student success. Students struggling with poor mental health will face overall poor academic outcomes.

 According to a 2022 YouthTruth student survey, over 50% of students at every high school grade level cited depression, stress, and anxiety as obstacles to learning—making these conditions ubiquitous in the culture of American teenagers. Additionally, the survey results indicated the percentage of students who feel happy about their lives declines 3–12 grades.

What is even more alarming is that fewer than half of secondary students—regardless of grade level, gender, race, or LGBTQ+ status—report they have an adult at school they can talk to when they feel upset or stressed, or have a problem.

It is abundantly clear mental health and academic performance are intertwined. Schools must take action if they intend to maintain their commitment to their students' overall well-being and academic excellence.

The Connection Between Mental Health and Academic Performance

Mental health challenges affect every facet of student life. Low self-esteem leads to decreased motivation and a lack of confidence when completing tasks or taking tests. Anxiety can make it difficult for students to study or attend classes. Depression can lead to decreased focus and concentration, making it hard for a student to remain engaged or complete work on time. But those are just a few of the complex challenges students face when managing their mental health and academic performance.

Left unaddressed, students with mental health challenges can experience adverse outcomes in their young lives. These include:

• trouble making friends,
• inability to learn, concentrate, or complete work,
• poor grades,
• absences,
• suspension, and
• expulsion.

Ultimately, left without support, students may even consider death by suicide.

When a student's unique needs are recognized, understood, and supported, they can showcase their strengths and reach their true potential. Student mental health needs are part of them, and it is your job as an educator to understand mental health implications in their learning.

What about students with learning differences?

Learning differences such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also play a harmful role in academic performance, particularly when they are not addressed in a learning plan. In fact, 70% of students with learning disabilities experience more symptoms of anxiety than students without learning disabilities, with anxiety and reading disorders co-occurring in approximately one in four students.

For example, students with ADHD may need help focusing, even when placed in supportive learning environments. Poorly managed ADHD and learning could lead them to fall behind in their studies or fail classes altogether. In the most extreme cases, students could experience bullying because of their ADHD, leaving them feeling stigmatized, which could impact an undiagnosed or co-occurring mental health challenge.

Schools must recognize that all mental health conditions are real and take steps to provide accommodations. Doing so better allows students the opportunity to learn effectively despite any mental health challenges they may be facing.

Mental Health and Its Impact on School Community

Mental health issues among students have far-reaching implications for school communities at large.

• Teachers may become overwhelmed trying to manage students with mental health needs within the classroom setting.
• Counseling centers and learning support specialists may become overburdened with requests for help.
• Parents may be concerned about their child's ability to succeed academically.
• Other members of the school community may struggle with how best to support those in need.

ISM Independent School Management. Understanding the Impact of Mental Health on Academic Performance.

https://isminc.com/about-us/contact

“Abstract: Previous studies on the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress were rich, but little was known about the influence mechanism between them, and almost no research was found on the role of psychological resilience and subjective socio-economic status in the relationship between them.

This study used a moderated mediation model to test the mediating effect of psychological resilience on the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress, and the moderating effect of subjective socioeconomic status in Chinese adolescents. We investigated 700 junior high school students in Inner Mongolia, China through online survey.

The results are as follows: (1) Mental health literacy is a negative predictor of adolescents' psychological distress; (2) psychological resilience mediated the association between mental health literacy and psychological distress; (3) The first half of the model, that is, the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological resilience, is moderated by subjective socioeconomic status. Specifically, for adolescents with low subjective socioeconomic status, the positive predictive effect of mental health literacy on psychological resilience is obviously enhanced. The current findings would contribute to a deep understanding of the relationship among adolescents' mental health literacy, psychological resilience, subjective socioeconomic status and psychological distress, which may be of great significance to the prevention of adolescents' psychological distress.

 … In recent years, adolescent mental health has become an urgent problem in the global public health field, which has aroused widespread concern of the public and professionals. A lot of evidence shows that the mental health of adolescents is deteriorating year by year, including anxiety, depression, psychological stress and suicide (Keyes et al., 2019, Twenge et al., 2019). During the epidemic in COVID-19, with the implementation of isolation measures, the lack of outdoor sports, the reduction of interpersonal communication and the excessive use of the Internet, adolescents experienced a higher proportion of anxiety, depression and stress than before the epidemic (Jones et al., 2021, Magson et al., 2021). Psychological distress is an uncomfortable state of negative emotions such as anxiety and depression (Gebremedhin et al., 2020). Studies have shown that psychological distress is a risk factor for adolescents' academic achievement, interpersonal relationships, self-injury and suicidal ideation (Hashim et al., 2012, Ibrahim et al., 2014, Kenny et al., 2013, McNicol and Thorsteinsson, 2017, You et al., 2012). Therefore, it is very necessary to explore the influencing mechanism of adolescents' psychological distress, which will help us find effective ways to intervene adolescents' psychological distress.”

Xuemin Zhang, Heng Yue, Xia Hao, Xiaohui Liu, Hugejiletu Bao. Exploring the relationship between mental health literacy and psychological distress in adolescents: A moderated mediation model, Preventive Medicine Reports, Volume 33, 2023, 102199, ISSN 2211-3355, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102199

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335523000906

“The fast paced academic world can be slow to see how a student’s mental health is so intimately connected to their academic performance. In most academic settings, academic success is the driving focus. Because of this many schools are left with an environment that feels slow to address the mental well-being of its students. When students aren’t able to address their mental health, then their academic performance will begin to drop as well. As poor mental health can lead to burnout, lack of motivation, inability to finish projects and more. Schools and students both can take steps to addressing mental health in academic settings.

Here are some of the main ways mental health impacts academic performance:

Cognitive Functions

Student’s mental health has a large impact on their cognitive abilities such as attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. When students are going through any kind of mental distress, it can lead to reduced focus and can hinder their ability to learn to the best of their ability.

Motivation and Engagement

When a student is in a good place mentally, then they tend to be more motivated and excited towards their school work. Their engagement and active participation in class goes up with their mood. On the flip side, however, when a student begins to struggle with their mental health their motivation and engagement in class begins to struggle as well.

Attendance and Participation

Mental health challenges are often a result of class absences. Many students who are struggling with poor mental health will feel as if they can’t go to class. As their motivation goes down, their ability to get to class does too.

It is important that we all keep an eye out for these patterns. When we are aware of what battling with mental health looks like in an academic setting like highschool or college, we can be on the lookout for it. Students, look out for your fellow scholars. Teachers, look out for your students and your coworkers. Lastly, look out for yourself. No one can do their job well while struggling with their mental health, so one of the best things we can do is reach out for help before we need it.”

https://valleyoaks.org/health-hub/the-link-between-mental-health-academic-performance/#:~:text=Student's%20mental%20health%20has%20a,the%20best%20of%20their%20ability

“The results indicate that social selection mechanisms are present in all three periods studied. Behavioral and emotional problems at age 3 were associated with performing below grade at age 12. Similarly, mental health problems at age 12 were associated with lack of complete final grades from compulsory school and non-eligibility to higher education. Academic performance at ages 15 and 19 did not increase the risk for mental health problems at age 20. … Mental health problems in early childhood and adolescence increase the risk for poor academic performance, indicating the need for awareness and treatment to provide fair opportunities to education.

Conclusions

The study adds to the existing literature by the use of a large, two-generational cohort, and longitudinal prospective design with multiple data collection points, investigating the association between mental health and academic performance during different developmental periods from age 12 to 20. The results emphasize the necessity to detect externalizing and internalizing problems at a young age and continuously throughout the school years.

In practice, it means that these kinds of problems need to be noticed at preschool age and educational practices adjusted and adequate treatment given to promote transition to the school environment and completion of compulsory school. Knowledge and recognition of the potential effects of internalizing problems on academic performance might be especially important as these problems tend to be less explicit to others compared to externalizing problems.

No support was found for the association between academic performance during adolescence and mental health status in early adulthood in this Swedish context. However, this result needs to be interpreted in the light of a considerable drop-out rate and a long time span between measures of impact and outcome.”

Agnafors S, Barmark M, Sydsjö G. (2020). Mental health and academic performance: a study on selection and causation effects from childhood to early adulthood. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2021 May;56(5):857-866. doi: 10.1007/s00127-020-01934-5. Epub 2020 Aug 19.

“Poor mental health can affect students at all stages of their university experience. Whether they are facing loneliness, anxiety or even depression, mental health difficulties can have a significant impact on a student’s ability to engage with their studies, make friends and make the most of their university experience.

In this blog we assess 6 major ways in which poor mental health can impact the student experience.

1. Engagement

Institutions often point to lower engagement with studies from students facing mental health challenges. Many universities now track engagement levels to identify students who may need support. Students with mental health challenges may seem less interested in their course, unwilling to engage in discussions and their attendance overall may decline.

Students facing anxiety or depression may feel unable to go into lectures or seminars or unable to face the social interaction that comes with daily university life. This often proves to have a knock-on effect on academic engagement. Students with mental health challenges may suddenly change their levels of engagement or seem less proactive. These signs of withdrawal are typical indicators of a student facing mental health risks.

2. Concentration

Students with mental health difficulties may also struggle with their concentration in seminars or lectures. They may be distracted by other challenges in life or may be feeling the strain of their mental health. This may mean students are unable to contribute to sessions in their usual way, take longer to understand concepts or are simply not able to focus on the task in hand. Lecturers or course leaders may notice a difference from the student’s usual performance or may recognise signs a student is distracted or unfocussed.

3. Attainment

Often the impact on engagement and concentration with academic studies can have a direct impact on attainment. Students facing mental health challenges may see a decline in their results or prove unable to respond effectively to the high-pressure expectations of exams and assignments. Results from a course and how they compare with previous performance can often indicate to lecturers and professors that a student may be struggling with their mental health.

Often expectations around attainment and results can often compound mental health issues and become the focus for anxiety, stress or depression.

4. Progression

Those with mental health challenges may also seem uninterested or unengaged with their long-term progression. Whether it be progression through the course or looking towards long term career goals and future employment, mental health risks can often block this long-term thinking. Students may be unable to think beyond the day they are facing or their immediate problems.

Mental health risks are often linked with higher levels of drops out and lower retention rates. Any institution should be looking to ensure that interventions are delivered early enough to prevent the needs for a student to withdraw from their course. It is often typical for students struggling with their mental health to face poorer student outcomes and be less likely to carry on to the next stage of their studies.

5. Energy and Enthusiasm

Not all the effects of mental health are directed towards the academic experience. The character and personality of a student may be impacted mental health challenges. This can mean that a student has less energy, they may seem less enthusiastic about university life and as a result may not engage with extra-curricular activities and social occasions.

Students with mental health risks may feel unable to leave their student accommodation and unable to face new experiences and challenges that come with university life. This lack of enthusiasm can often become a cycle in which they become more isolated and less able to engage with their peers and studies.

6. Sociability and Relationships

Student facing mental health risks can often very quickly become less sociable or less interested in making new friends or building relationships. Those around the student may notice they become withdrawn and unwilling to take part in social activities. Many students facing mental health risks need a support network and friends around them to help them and the change in these relationships can be a key warning sign.

No Student is the Same

It should be stressed that no student is the same. The impacts of poor mental health above are key indicators of a student facing mental health problems and needing support. However, some students may respond in an entirely different way. A student could seem entirely happy and engaged to others and yet be facing significant personal challenges. As such, it is vital that higher education institutions ensure that mental health support and awareness is easily accessible to all throughout the student lifecycle.”

Clark, C. (2021). How Does Poor Mental Health Affect Students 6 Key Impacts.. HE Professional.

https://heprofessional.co.uk/edition/how-does-poor-mental-health-affect-students-6-key-impacts

Bye folks

_______________________________________________________________________________________________ 

This next segment is the original, broader document and includes earlier periods.

The relationship between mental health and literacy is not easy to disentangle, as studies are usually correlational in design. Certainly, there does appear to be a link - but does illiteracy cause mental health problems, or might mental health problems impede literacy development? Or perhaps a third variable affects both domains. One obvious candidate for a causal link involves extended failure caused or exacerbated by inadequate instruction, particularly in that first big educational hurdle – literacy development.

David Boulton of the Children of the Code fame writes about the unfortunate subjective experience of children with sustained educational low achievement, suggestive of an impact on self-esteem, mental health, and preparedness to persevere. His writings can be found by Googling the heading: Stewarding Healthy Learning.

What does it mean that most of our children are chronically improficient in the skill areas most critically important for success in school?

“What does it feel like - how does it feel, to be chronically, day after day, week after week, month after month, and for a great many children, year after year - not good enough? Not good enough at something that they know is important, that they know is causing them to fall behind, that they can’t seem to get good enough at achieving, and that they can’t hide because their family, friends, and peers know about it too?

Read more ...